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Cognitivism
Esther Michela
Cognitivism information processing theory long-term memory Self-regulated Learning Cognitive Load Theory
Attention short-term memory working memory
Cognitive learning theories cover a wide range of ideas from the work of many researchers. It is a continually
developing field which has influenced and been influenced by the developments in different fields including instructional
design, developmental psychology, cognitive psychology, and increasingly cognitive neuropsychology. Cognitive
learning theories focus on the ability of students to guide their own learning using mental strategies. The purpose of
this chapter is to (a) briefly explore the growth of cognitivism, (b) explain some of the relevant cognitive processes
identified within cognitivism, (c) provide an overview of several cognitive learning theories, and (d) describe the
relevance of cognitivism to instructional design practices. These areas will provide an instructional design student with
knowledge of theories that can be applied in situations for learners with varied learning needs.
Growth of Cognitivism
Cognitivist learning theories are understood to have stemmed from the inadequacies of the behaviorist learning
theories of strict stimulus and response training to fully explain how learning occurs. Petri and Mishkin (1994) point to
the work of researchers Edward Tolman, Wolfgang Kohler, and Ivan Krechevsky on the role of expectations, insight,
purpose, and hypothesis making in the early 1920s and 30s as the earliest forays into cognitivist research. However, it
was not until the 1950s that cognitive theories began to gain discernible traction and attention.
The definition and scope of cognitivism has evolved over the years. Early studies of cognition explored the active
acquisition of knowledge as opposed to the more passive learner approach of behaviorism (Woolfolk, 2015). According
to more recent views such as those of Ertmer and Newby (1994), “cognitive theories focus on the conceptualization of a
student’s learning processes and address issues of how information is received, organized, stored, and retrieved by the
mind” (p. 58). An early model of cognitivism, known as the two-store or dual memory model, refers to the interactions
between working memory and long-term memory. The two-store (dual) model is now seen as simplistic and incomplete
but serves as a starting point for understanding cognitive learning theories. As the field of cognitivism has expanded,
more theories have been developed so that there is no universal cognitive model or theory of learning accepted by all
cognitive scientists.
Cognitive Processes
In this section I will briefly explain the cognitive processes related to the two-store (dual) memory model including (a)
perception, (b) executive processes, (c) working memory, (d) encoding, and (e) long-term memory. These do not include
all of the cognitive processes involved in learning, but these are the ones most commonly addressed in the cognitivist
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view of learning. I acknowledge that each process is complex and have entire books written about them. However, I will
attempt to provide a working definition and description based on current knowledge that is most relevant to cognitivist
learning theories.
Perception
The process of receiving information begins with some sort of sensory input: the sound of a bell, the smell of a rose, the
touch of a feather, the taste of honey, or the sight of a friend. Each of the five sensory systems in our bodies has its own
complex pathway for registering and assigning meaning to, or perceiving, that input. It is generally based on context and
patterns of what is already known. The body receives large amounts of sensory data constantly since we touch, see,
hear, taste, and smell all the time, even though we are not conscious to all of it at once. Sensory information stays only
a very short time in the sensory register, though time estimates vary between less than a second to up to three seconds.
Then the information is transferred to short-term or working memory (Schunk, 2012 p. 165; Woolfolk, 2015, p. 294).
Executive processes
Executive, or control, processes “regulate the flow of information throughout the information processing system”
(Schunk, 2012, p. 166). These include the conscious processes and effort a person exerts in managing new information
as it is presented including directing attention, planning next steps, and retrieving information from long-term memory
for current use (Woolfolk, 2015, p. 298). It is often linked to working memory but has influence in all parts of the two-
store model. Executive processes are also used to monitor understanding, select learning strategies, and regulate
motivation. I will focus mainly on attention here, as it fits chronologically in the two-store model, but will keep in mind
that cognitivists believe that learners play a conscious, active role in the learning process, so the executive control
functions affect each stage of the process.
Attention is selective, which allows us, with effort, to ignore or acknowledge pertinent sensory input. We would be
overwhelmed if we tried to pay attention to every bit of competing sensory information at once. For example, in a
classroom, one could see the notes on the board, the teacher’s new hairstyle, and the current heart-throb sitting 2 seats
over, all while feeling an itchy shirt tag, and smelling the students returning from gym. Cutting through all of the sensory
input, one needs to decide where to focus attention. There are individual differences in one’s ability to initiate and
maintain attention, based on age, motivation, self-control, learning disabilities, and familiarity with the subject matter.
The more familiar someone is with a skill or context, the less conscious attention they need to exert in processing and
the more capacity they have to take in new information (Schunk, 2012).
Short-term or working memory
While short-term and working memory are not considered synonymous by all researchers, they are often used
interchangeably. Schunk (2012) says that short-term memory is “a working memory and corresponds roughly to
awareness, or what one is conscious of at a given moment” (p.179). Woolfolk (2015) distinguishes the two in that
working memory “includes both temporary storage and active processing,” while short-term memory is usually referred
to only as temporary storage of information (p. 297). It is generally agreed upon that short-term and working memory
are limited in both capacity and duration, and information will be lost if it is not constantly rehearsed or transferred to
long-term memory. Chunking, or segmenting, information into smaller pieces or groups may help reduce the load on
working memory. For example, instead of one long string of numbers, telephone numbers are segmented into three
sections.
Based on current understanding, there are four elements in working memory that process different types of sensory
input: the central executive, which controls attention and mental resources; the phonological loop, which processes
verbal and auditory information; the visuospatial sketchpad, which works on visual and spatial information; and the
episodic buffer, which integrates information from the previous processors with information from long-term memory to
make sense of it all (Woolfolk, 2015, p. 298). The processors can be used strategically, for instance to memorize a
phone number given verbally. I would exert my executive control by constantly repeating the number out loud, using the
phonological loop to rehearse until I could write it down, creating a visual image. I could then continue to rehearse the
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number out loud while visualizing the number in my head, drawing on the visuospatial sketchpad. I could use my prior
knowledge of ZIP codes or number patterns to make connections with more familiar numbers until the number was
memorized. These four elements of working memory are important for an instructional designer to understand as they
consider strategies to assist learners. This leads us to a further discussion of encoding.
Encoding
Encoding is the process of integrating new information processed in the working memory with what is already known to
facilitate storage in the long-term memory. Encoding is influenced by organization, elaboration, and schema (Schunk,
2012, p. 187). For cognitivist researchers, encoding is where the magic happens. This is where all of the cognitive
processes and executive control functions work together to “learn” new information and store it for future use.
Gestalt theory developed in the early 1900s refers to our “tendency to organize sensory information into patterns or
relationships” (Woolfolk, 2015, p. 294). While the Gestalt theory is now essentially disproved, it provided early insight
into human perception, showed that organized material is easier to recall, and revealed that humans will often impose
order and meaning when there is none apparent (Schunk, 2012). Organizational strategies include creating hierarchies,
mnemonic techniques, and mental imagery. Organization of material enhances memory, because it connects new
information to what is already known, and when one piece of information is activated, or cued, it will activate connected
information as well.
“Elaboration is the process of expanding upon new information by adding to it or linking it to what one knows” (Schunk,
2012, p. 188). Mnemonic devices can assist with elaboration by giving meaning to something easily remembered, such
as using the first letter of the order of operations in math: Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally (Parentheses, Exponents,
Multiplication, Division, Addition, Subtraction). I used elaboration in memorizing the license plate number on my old car,
6AT1830. There are six children in my family, so I linked that information to the six. AT formed the word “at,” and 1830
could be the military time for 6:30. I asked myself the question, “How many for dinner?” The answer is 6 at 6:30 (or
1830). It may seem a convoluted process to memorize, but it has stuck, so much so that after I bought a new car and
switched license plates, I still try to give the old plate number. The process of elaborating new information with
meaningful knowledge increases the likelihood that it will be remembered.
Schemas or schemata are personalized organizational structures. They encompass our general knowledge of specific
situations that are used to plan our actions and interactions. They often prescribe a routine of actions based on our past
experience (Schunk, 2012, p. 189). For example, a schema could be the process of ordering fast food. For one person,
the schema may include using the drive through, carefully considering different options on the menu, ordering their
meal, pulling forward, paying, and then eating on the road. The schema for another customer might include going inside
the restaurant, ordering the same items as always, chatting with the employees, and sitting down to eat. Any schema
about ordering fast food allows a person to go into the situation with some prior knowledge and expectations of the
process.
Schemas can also assist in processing new information using a pre-existing or familiar structure. For example, a
schema for a Hollywood romantic comedy would contain consistent elements. When watching the newly released
summer blockbuster, a moviegoer would likely recognize familiar types of characters, themes, and plot points: the
heroine, the love interest, the misunderstanding or obstacle to the relationship, and the eventual happy ending. Schemas
can help learners encode by integrating new information with familiar knowledge and structure.
Long-term memory
Petri and Mishkin (1994) define memory as “the ability to store sensory information for later retrieval as images,
thoughts and idea” (p. 33). What is referred to as memory in common speech generally means long-term memory where
images, thoughts, and ideas are stored for greater lengths of time. While short-term memory is limited in duration and
capacity, long-term memory is, theoretically, unlimited in both. Information is generally stored in long-term memory as
verbal representations, though as ideas rather than in specific sentences. For example, when trying to recall something
my friend said yesterday, I am likely to remember the idea and recreate it in my own words instead of repeating my
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